The long and bumpy road to CRISPR (3)

 CRISPR People. The Science and Ethics of Editing Humans

A book on the ethics of CRISPR, without a clear prescription, only a review of He horrendous experiment and a personal view of the current situation.

This has been a cautionary tale about scienceand scientists. People can overreach. He Jiankui, driven as far as I can tell by what Macbeth called “vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself,”1 and aided by a serious lack of scruples, behaved terribly. He put three lives at needless and reckless risk (and tried to do the same to more). The story is also a cautionary tale for Science. He Jiankui damaged Science by reinforcing the Victor Frankenstein image—the mad, uncontrolled scientist. Most scientists, and hence most science, are much more rule bound, constrained by the needs of getting and keeping jobs, tenure, and most importantly grants, as well as wrapped, in most countries, in many bureaucratic threads of control. But He happened, and Science needs both to act to minimize the harm he has caused and to be seen to be doing so.

A global consensus is a chimera. Seven and a half billion people are not going to agree on this issue—nor will the fraction of those who understand it. Neither will the roughly 200 countries of the world, at least at anything other than a lowest common denominator. Not all countries have agreed to various nuclear weapons or climate change treaties in spite of the apparently obvious need for them. If somehow something close to unanimity were achieved, it would probably be at the cost of precision. Thus, the Council of Europe enacted a convention that banned human cloning, but effectively left open the then-hot question whether it covered just reproductive cloning or “research cloning” (of human embryos for only ex vivo use) by not defining a “human being.” It also left the implantation and enforcement of such a ban up to the member nations, some of whom were probably happy, for political reasons, to sign it but will have little interest in enforcing it. 

And this is the controversial position of the author:

 One might argue that human germline genome changes are irreversible, or less reversible, than some other interventions. But is that true? A mistaken genome change could presumably be reedited, in a living person or in that person’s germline (or embryos), to reverse the error. Or it could be selected against in the individual’s offspring, through PGD or otherwise. It could be too late to avoid harm to the edited person, but that mistake will not have to pass on from generation to generation. Human germline genome editing does raise important questions about safety, coercion, equity, diversity, and  enhancement. These are not unique to editing the human germline genome. They also apply to somatic cell DNA editing, to new drugs, to smartphones, to climate change, and to many other changes from technologies. Questions about reversibility also apply; the social effects of cell phones are probably less reversible than genome edits. The fact that a technological change is in “the human germline genome” should have no special ethical weight.

Really? Security in CRISPR is not unique???

Genome editing, closer than you think

Human Genome Editing Science, Ethics, and Governance

Last week the US patent office ruled that hotly disputed patents on the CRISPR revolutionary genome-editing technology belong to the Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT. In a former post I explained the dispute. Genome editing in my opinion shouldn't be patented and will see exactly the impact of such ruling in US and elsewhere in the next future.
If you want to know in detail what does genome editing means for the future of life sciences, have a look at NASEM book.

It is now possible to insert or delete single nucleotides,interrupt a gene or genetic element, make a single-stranded break in DNA, modify a nucleotide, or make epigenetic changes to gene expression. In the realm of biomedicine, genome editing could be used for three broad purposes: for basic research, for somatic interventions, and for germline interventions.

CRISPR (which stands for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) refers to short, repeated segments of DNA originally discovered in bacteria. These segments provided the foundation for the development of a system that combines short RNA sequences paired with Cas9 (CRISPR associated protein 9, an RNA-directed nuclease), or with similar nucleases, and can readily be programmed to edit specific segments of DNA. The CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing system offers several advantages over previous strategies for making changes to the genome and has been at the center of much discussion concerning how genome editing could be applied to promote human health.

I would just want to say that these patents destroy the soul of science, since access should be available with no barriers for the development of  innovation. Patents are not the incentive for discovery in this case, as I explained in my post, natural processes should'nt be patented. And this is why today is a really sad day.

PS. My posts against patents

Michael Kiwanuka. Home again

Els medicaments que venen i els que ja s'han aprovat el 2023

És bo fer una ullada a quins són els medicaments que previsiblement s'aprovaran l'any 2024, i els de Nature diuen que són aquests:

Medicaments per aprovar el 2024

Biologic name	Sponsor	Properties	Indication	Timing
Zolbetuximab	Astellas	Claudin 18.2-targeted mAb	Gastric cancer	January
Lifileucel	Iovance	Tumour-infiltrating lymphocyte therapy	Melanoma	February
Resmetiroma	Madrigal/Synta	Thyroid hormone receptor β agonist	NASH	March
Sotatercepta	Merck & Co./Acceleron	Fusion protein ligand trap for TGF-β superfamily	PAH	March
mRNA-1345a	Moderna	mRNA-based vaccine	RSV prevention	April
Donanemaba	Eli Lilly	Amyloid-β-targeted mAb	Alzheimer disease	Q1
EB-101a	Abeona	Gene therapy with COL7A2 transgene	RDEB	May
Patritumab deruxtecana	Merck & Co.	HER3-targeted ADC	NSCLC	June
Imetelstat	Geron	Telomerase inhibitor	Transfusion-dependent anaemia with MDS	June
Tarlatamaba	Amgen	DLL3 × CD3 T-cell engager antibody	SCLC	June
Fidanacogene elaparvoveca	Pfizer/Spark	AAV-based gene therapy with factor IX transgene	Hemophilia B	Q2
Bentracimaba	Laboratoires SERB	Ticagrelor-neutralizing antibody	Drug toxicity	1H
Crovalimaba	Roche	C5-targeted mAb	PNH	July
Danicopana	AstraZeneca/Alexion	Factor D inhibitor	PNH	July
Midomafetaminea	MAPS	MDMA	PTSD	August
Xanomeline plus trospium	Karuna/BMS	Muscarinic receptor modulators	Schizophrenia	September
Acoramidis	BridgeBio	TTR stabilizer	TTR amyloidosis	December
Marstacimab	Pfizer	TFPI-targeted mAb	Haemophilia A and B	Q4
Afamitresgene autoleucela	Adaptimmune	MAGE-A4-targeted autologous, engineered T cell therapy	Synovial sarcoma	2024

aBreakthrough designated drug. AAV, adeno-associated virus; ADC, antibody–drug conjugate; mAb, monoclonal antibody; MDS, myelodysplastic syndromes; NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis; NSCLC, non-small-cell lung cancer; PAH, pulmonary arterial hypertension; PNH, paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria; PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder; RDEB, recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; SCLC, small-cell lung cancer; TFPI, tissue factor pathway inhibitor; TTR, transthyretin. Source: BioMedTracker and press releases.

També és bo de veure què ha passat amb l'aprovació de medicaments per la FDA el 2023 i resulta que s'ha arribat a 55 nous medicaments, una xifra considerable si observem el que passava els anys anteriors, només superada el 2018

Fig. 1 | 30 years of novel FDA approvals. Annual numbers of new molecular entities (NMEs) and biologics license applications (BLAs) approved by the FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER). See Table 1 for new approvals in 2023. Products approved by the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER), including vaccines and gene therapies, are not included in this drug count (Table 2). Source: FDA.

Fig. 2 | CDER approvals by therapeutic area. Indications that span multiple therapeutic areas are classified under only one, based on which FDA office and division reviewed the approval application. Sources: Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, FDA.

Fig. 3 | CDER approvals by modality. Small molecules, including peptides of up to 40 amino acids in length, and oligonucleotides are approved as new molecular entities (NMEs). Protein-based candidates are approved through biologics license applications (BLAs). mAb, monoclonal antibody; siRNA, small interfering RNA. Source: Nature Reviews Drug Discovery.

I la notícia de l'any ha estat CRISPR:

Vertex and CRISPR Therapeutics’ exagamglogene autotemcel (exa-cel; Casgevy) especially is the first CRISPR–Cas9-based gene editor to secure a green light from the FDA, winning an approval for sickle cell disease (SCD). Exa-cel is an ex vivo gene-edited cell therapy: blood cells are harvested from patients, genetically modified at the BCL11a transcription factor to re-enable fetal haemoglobin production, and then re-infused into patients. The therapeutically upregulated fetal haemoglobin compensates for the defects in β-haemoglobin that cause the diseases. Clinical data shows that the gene therapy has curative potential, although longer-term data are needed to assess the durability of the effect.

When Harvard Medical School and HHMI’s Stuart Orkin and colleagues discovered the role of BCL11a in fetal haemoglobin production in 2008, it was unclear how to drug the transcription factor. The arrival of CRISPR–Cas9 gene-editing system in 2012 provided a path forward for haemoglobinopathies. The development of the programme was “remarkably fast”, said Orkin. “It is a perfect example of how the ecosystem can work.”

Vertex and CRISPR have priced the one-off treatment at $2.2 million. It also requires a harsh preconditioning chemotherapy regimen, to make room for the edited cells. The therapy will consequently remain out of reach for many patients. “This is not the end game,” says Orkin, who has his eye on next-generation gene editors and small molecules that might be more accessible.

PS. Un breu missatge per aquells que mitjançant la seva recerca "obren la porta" a tractaments i ho expliquen al Telenotícies. No n'hi ha cap d'aquesta llista del 2024 ni del 2023 d'aquí sota que sigui un d'ells, la porta segueix oberta, o potser no hi havia porta per obrir. Millor no haver d'estar sentint això sempre, sense explicar-ne el resultat.

PS. La història de exa-cel.

PS. The economist sobre el tema

PS. El llistat de medicaments:

Table 1 | CDER approvals in 2023

Drug (brand name)	Sponsor	Properties	Indication
Lecanemab (Leqembi)a	Eisai/Biogen	Amyloid-β-targeted mAb	Alzheimer disease
Bexagliflozin (Brenzavvy)	Theracosbio	SGLT2 inhibitor	Glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus
Pirtobrutinib (Jaypirca)	Loxo/Eli Lilly	BTK inhibitor	Mantle cell lymphoma
Elacestrant (Orserdu)	Stemline	ER antagonist	ER-positive, HER2-negative, ESR1-mutant breast cancer
Daprodustat (Jesduvroq)	GSK	HIF-PH inhibitor	Anaemia caused by CKD for adults on dialysis
Velmanase alfa (Lamzede)a	Chiesi	Recombinant α-mannosidase	Non-CNS manifestations of α-mannosidosis
Sparsentan (Filspari)	Travere	Endothelin and angiotensin II receptor antagonist	Proteinuria in primary IgA nephropathy
Omaveloxolone (Skyclarys)	Reata/Biogen	Mechanism unknown, NRF2 activator	Friedrich’s ataxia
Zavegepant (Zavzpret)	Pfizer	CGRP receptor antagonist	Migraine
Trofinetide (Daybue)	Acadia	Mechanism unknown	Rett syndrome
Retifanlimab (Zynyz)a	Incyte	PD1-targeted mAb	Merkel cell carcinoma
Rezafungin (Rezzayo)	Cidara	Echinocandin antifungal	Candidemia and invasive candidiasis
Leniolisib (Joenja)	Pharming	PI3Kδ inhibitor	Activated PI3Kδ syndrome
Tofersen (Qalsody)	Biogen	SOD1-targeted ASO	SOD1 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Pegunigalsidase alfa (Elfabrio)a	Chiesi	PEGylated recombinant α-galactosidase Α	Fabry disease
Fezolinetant (Veozah)	Astellas	Neurokinin 3 receptor antagonist	Hot flashes caused by menopause
Perfluorohexyloctane (Miebo)	Bausch + Lomb	Semifluorinated alkane	Dry eye disease
Epcoritamab (Epkinly)a	Genmab/AbbVie	CD20 × CD3 T-cell engager	DLBCL and high-grade B-cell lymphoma
Sulbactam, durlobactam (Xacduro)	Entasis	β-lactam antibacterial plus a β-lactamase inhibitor	Hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia caused by susceptible ABC
Nirmatrelvir, ritonavir (Paxlovid)	Pfizer	SARS-CoV-2 main protease inhibitor plus a CYP3A inhibitor	Mild-to-moderate COVID-19
Flotufolastat F18 (Posluma)	Blue Earth	Radioactive diagnostic agent	PET imaging in prostate cancer
Sotagliflozin (Inpefa)	Lexicon	SGLT1/2 inhibitor	Heart failure
Glofitamab (Columvi)a	Genentech	CD20 × CD3 T-cell engager	DLBLC or large B-cell lymphoma
Ritlecitinib (Litfulo)	Pfizer	JAK3 inhibitor	Alopecia areata
Rozanolixizumab (Rystiggo)a	UCB	FcRn-targeted mAb	AChR- or MuSK-antibody-positive gMG
Somatrogon (Ngenla)a	Pfizer	Human growth hormone analogue	Growth hormone deficiency
Nirsevimab (Beyfortus)a	AstraZeneca	RSV F protein-targeted mAb	RSV lower respiratory tract disease
Quizartinib (Vanflyta)	Daiichi Sankyo	FLT3 kinase inhibitor	AML
Lotilaner (Xdemvy)	Tarsus	Ectoparasiticide	Demodex blepharitis
Zuranolone (Zurzuvae)	Sage	GABAA receptor PAM	Postpartum depression
Avacincaptad pegol (Izervay)	Iveric/Astellas	C5-targeted aptamer	Geographic atrophy secondary to AMD
Talquetamab (Talvey)a	Janssen	GPRC5D × CD3 T-cell engager	Multiple myeloma
Elranatamab (Elrexfio)a	Pfizer	BCMA × CD3 T-cell engager	Multiple myeloma
Palovarotene (Sohonos)	Ipsen	Retinoic acid receptor agonist	Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva
Pozelimab (Veopoz)a	Regeneron	C5-targeted mAb	CHAPLE disease
Motixafortide (Aphexda)	Biolinerx	CXCR4 inhibitor	Hematopoietic stem cell mobilization for autologous transplantation in multiple myeloma
Momelotinib (Ojjaara)	GSK	JAK1/2, ALK2 inhibitor	Myelofibrosis in adults with anaemia
Gepirone (Exxua)	Fabre-Kramer	5HT1A receptor agonist	Major depressive disorder
Cipaglucosidase alfa (Pombiliti)a	Amicus	Recombinant α-glucosidase	Pompe disease
Nedosiran (Rivfloza)	Novo Nordisk	LDHA-targeted siRNA	Primary hyperoxaluria type 1
Etrasimod (Velsipity)	Pfizer	S1P receptor modulator	Ulcerative colitis
Zilucoplan (Zilbrysq)	UCB	Complement C5 inhibitor	AChR-antibody positive gMG
Bimekizumab (Bimzelx)a	UCB	IL-17A/F-targeted mAb	Plaque psoriasis
Vamorolone (Agamree)	Santhera	Corticosteroid	Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Mirikizumab (Omvoh)a	Eli Lilly	IL-23-targeted mAb	Ulcerative colitis
Toripalimab (Loqtorzi)a	Coherus	PD1-targeted mAb	Nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Fruquintinib (Fruzaqla)	Takeda	VEGFR1/2/3 kinase inhibitor	Colorectal cancer
Taurolidine, heparin (Defencath)	Cormedix	Thiadiazinane antimicrobial plus an anticoagulant	Incidence of catheter-related bloodstream infections
Repotrectinib (Augtyro)	Bristol Myers Squibb	ROS1 and TRK kinase inhibitor	ROS1-positive NSCLC
Efbemalenograstim alfa (Ryzneuta)a	Evive	Recombinant leukocyte growth factor	Neutropenia
Capivasertib (Truqap)	AstraZeneca	AKT kinase inhibitor	Breast cancer
Nirogacestat (Ogsiveo)	Springworks	γ-secretase inhibitor	Desmoid tumours
Iptacopan (Fabhalta)	Novartis	Complement factor B inhibitor	Paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria
Birch triterpenes (Filsuvez)	Chiesi	Mechanism unknown	Epidermolysis bullosa
Eplontersen (Wainua)	Ionis/AstraZeneca	TTR-targeted ASO	hATTR with polyneuropathy

aBiologic approval. A, accelerated; ABC, Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus complex; AChR, anti-acetylcholine receptor; AMD, age-related macular degeneration; AML, acute myelogenous leukaemia; ASO, antisense oligonucleotide; B, breakthrough; CGRP, calcitonin gene-related peptide; CKD, chronic kidney disease; CNS, central nervous system; DLBCL, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma; ESR1, estrogen receptor 1; ER, estrogen receptor; FcRn, neonatal Fc receptor; gMG, generalized myasthenia gravis; hATTR, hereditary TTR amyloidosis; HER2, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2; HIF-PH, hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase; IgA, immunoglobulin A; mAb, monoclonal antibody; MuSK, muscle-specific tyrosine kinase; NSCLC, non-small-cell lung cancer; O, orphan; P, priority; PAM, positive allosteric modulator; PD1, programmed death receptor 1; RSV; respiratory syncytial virus; S, standard; S1P, sphingosine 1-phosphate; siRNA, small interfering RNA; TTR, transthyretin. Source: Drugs@FDA.

Table 2 | Selected CBER approvals in 2023

Biologic name (brand)	Sponsor	Properties	Indication
Fc-vwf-xten fusion protein (Altuviiio)	Bioverativ	Recombinant antihaemophilic factor	Haemophilia A
Omidubicel (Omisirge)	Gamida Cell	Nicotinamide modified allogeneic haematopoietic progenitor cell therapy	Neutrophil recovery in patients with haematologic malignancies
Fecal microbiota spores, live (Vowst)	Seres	Bacterial spore suspension in capsules for oral administration	C. difficile recurrence
RSV vaccine, adjuvanted (Arexvy)	GSK	Stabilized prefusion F subunit vaccine	RSV prevention, in over 60s
Beremagene geperpavec (Vyjuvek)	Krystal	HSV-based gene therapy with COL7A1 transgene	Skin wounds in COL7A1-mutated DEB
RSV vaccine (Abrysvo)	Pfizer	Bivalent stabilized prefusion F subunit vaccine	RSV prevention, in over 60s and pregnant women
Delandistrogene moxeparvovec (Elevidys)	Sarepta	AAV-based gene therapy with a micro-dystrophin transgene	DMD patients aged 4–5
Donislecel (Lantidra)	Celltrans	Allogeneic pancreatic islets	Type 1 diabetes patients unable to approach target HbA1c
Valoctocogene roxaparvovec (Roctavian)	Biomarin	AAV-based gene therapy with modified factor VIII transgene	Haemophilia A
Anthrax vaccine adsorbed, adjuvanted (Cyfendus)	Emergent	Protective antigen protein-based vaccine	Post-exposure prophylaxis
Prothrombin complex concentrate, human (Balfaxar)	Octapharma	Prothrombin complex concentrate containing factor II, VII, IX and X, and proteins C and S	Urgent warfarin reversal
Meningococcal groups A, B, C, W, and Y vaccine (Penbraya)	Pfizer	Conjugate and recombinant protein vaccine, pentivalent	Meningococcal disease prevention
Chikungunya vaccine, live (Ixchiq)	Valneva	Live, attenuated chikungunya virus vaccine	Chikungunya virus prevention
ADAMTS13, recombinant (Adzynma)	Takeda	Recombinant rADAMTS13	cTTP
Exagamglogene autotemcel (Casgevy)	Vertex/CRISPR	CRISPR–Cas9-based BCL11a-gene-editing therapy	Sickle cell disease
Lovotibeglogene autotemcel (Lyfgenia)	Bluebird	Lentivirus-based gene therapy with HbAT87Q transgene	Sickle cell disease

AAV, adeno-associated virus; C. difficile, Clostridioides difficile; cTTP, congenital thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura; DEB, dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa; DMD, Duchenne muscular dystrophy; HbA1c; glycated haemoglobin; HSV, herpes simplex virus; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus. Source: FDA.

 PS. I els medicaments que no s'han aprovat:

Table 3 | Selected rejected drugs of 2023

Drug	Sponsor	Properties	Indication
Donanemab	Eli Lilly	Amyloid-β-targeted mAb	Alzheimer disease
Omecamtiv mecarbil	Cytokinetics	Myosin activator	Chronic heart failure
Inbakicept	ImmunityBio	IL-15 agonist fusion protein	Bladder cancer
Concizumab	Novo Nordisk	TFPI-targeted mAb	Haemophilia A and B
Obeticholic acid (Ocaliva)a	Alfasigma	Farnesoid X receptor agonist	NASH
Zuranolone (Zurzuvae)b	Sage	GABAA receptor PAM	MDD
Avasopasem manganese	Galera	Superoxide dismutase mimetic	Mucositis
Lebrikizumab	Eli Lilly	IL-13-targeted mAb	Atopic dermatitis
Gefapixant	Merck & Co.	P2X3 receptor antagonist	Chronic cough